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De civitate Dei (CCSL)

Caput II: Quomodo remotis omnibus differentiis, quae non sectae, sed quaestiones sint, ad tripertitam summi boni definitionem Varro perueniat, quarum tamen una sit eligenda.

In tribus quoque illis uitae generibus, uno scilicet non segniter, sed in contemplatione uel inquisitione ueritatis otioso, altero in gerendis rebus humanis negotioso, tertio ex utroque genere temperato, cum quaeritur quid horum sit potius eligendum, non finis boni habet controuersiam; sed quid horum trium difficultatem uel facilitatem adferat ad consequendum uel retinendum finem boni, id in ista quaestione uersatur. finis enim boni, cum ad eum quisque peruenerit, protinus beatum facit; in otio autem litterato, uel in negotio publico, uel quando utrumque uicibus agitur, non continuo quisque beatus est. multi quippe in quolibet horum trium possunt uiuere, et in adpetendo boni fine, quo fit homo beatus, errare. alia est igitur quaestio de finibus bonorum et malorum, quae unamquamque philosophorum sectam facit, et aliae sunt quaestiones de sociali uita, de cunctatione Academicorum, de uestitu et uictu Cynicorum, de tribus uitae generibus, otioso, actuoso, ex utroque modificato; quarum nulla est, in qua de bonorum et malorum finibus disputatur. proinde quoniam Marcus Varro has quattuor adhibens differentias, id est ex uita sociali, ex Academicis nouis, ex Cynicis, ex isto uitae genere tripertito ad sectas ducentas octoginta octo peruenit, et si quae aliae possunt similiter adici, remotis eis omnibus, quoniam de sectando summo bono nullam inferunt quaestionem et ideo sectae nec sunt nec uocandae sunt, ad illas duodecim, in quibus quaeritur, quod sit bonum hominis, quo adsecuto fit beatus, ut ex eis unam ueram, ceteras falsas ostendat esse, reuertitur. nam remoto illo tripertito genere uitae duae partes huius numeri detrahuntur et sectae nonaginta sex remanent. remota uero differentia ex Cynicis addita ad dimidium rediguntur et quadraginta octo fiunt. auferamus etiam quod ex Academicis nouis adhibitum est: rursus dimidia pars remanet, id est uiginti quattuor. de sociali quoque uita quod accesserat similiter auferatur: duodecim sunt reliquae, quas ista differentia, ut uiginti quattuor fierent, duplicauerat. de his ergo duodecim nihil dici potest, cur sectae non sint habendae. nihil quippe aliud in eis quaeritur quam fines bonorum et malorum. inuentis autem bonorum finibus profecto e contrario sunt malorum. hae autem ut fiant duodecim sectae, illa quattuor triplicantur, uoluptas, quies, utrumque et prima naturae, quae primigenia Varro uocat. haec quippe quattuor dum singillatim uirtuti aliquando subduntur, ut non propter se ipsa, sed propter officium uirtutis adpetenda uideantur, aliquando praeferuntur, ut non propter se ipsa, sed propter haec adipiscenda uel conseruanda necessaria uirtus putetur, aliquando iunguntur, ut propter se ipsa et uirtus et ista adpetenda credantur, quaternarium numerum triplum reddunt et ad duodecim sectas perueniunt. ex illis autem quattuor rebus Varro tres tollit, uoluptatem scilicet et quietem et utrumque; non quod eas inprobet, sed quod primigenia illa naturae et uoluptatem in se habeant et quietem. quid ergo opus est ex his duabus tria quaedam facere, duo scilicet, cum singillatim adpetuntur uoluptas aut quies, et tertium cum ambae simul, quandoquidem prima naturae et ipsas et praeter ipsas alia multa contineant? de tribus ergo sectis ei placet diligenter esse tractandum, quaenam sit potius eligenda. non enim ueram plus quam unam uera ratio esse permittit, siue in his tribus sit siue alicubi alibi, quod post uidebimus. interim de his tribus quomodo unam Varro eligat, quantum breuiter aperteque possumus, disseramus. istae nempe tres sectae ita fiunt, cum uel prima naturae propter uirtutem, uel uirtus propter prima naturae, uel utraque, id est et uirtus et prima naturae, propter se ipsa sunt expetenda.

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The City of God

Chapter 2.--How Varro, by Removing All the Differences Which Do Not Form Sects, But are Merely Secondary Questions, Reaches Three Definitions of the Chief Good, of Which We Must Choose One.

The same may be said of those three kinds of life, the life of studious leisure and search after truth, the life of easy engagement in affairs, and the life in which both these are mingled. When it is asked, which of these should be adopted, this involves no controversy about the end of good, but inquires which of these three puts a man in the best position for finding and retaining the supreme good. For this good, as soon as a man finds it, makes him happy; but lettered leisure, or public business, or the alternation of these, do not necessarily constitute happiness. Many, in fact, find it possible to adopt one or other of these modes of life, and yet to miss what makes a man happy. The question, therefore, regarding the supreme good and the supreme evil, and which distinguishes sects of philosophy, is one; and these questions concerning the social life, the doubt of the Academy, the dress and food of the Cynics, the three modes of life--the active, the contemplative, and the mixed--these are different questions, into none of which the question of the chief good enters. And therefore, as Marcus Varro multiplied the sects to the number of 288 (or whatever larger number he chose) by introducing these four differences derived from the social life, the New Academy, the Cynics, and the threefold form of life, so, by removing these differences as having no bearing on the supreme good, and as therefore not constituting what can properly be called sects, he returns to those twelve schools which concern themselves with inquiring what that good is which makes man happy, and he shows that one of these is true, the rest false. In other words, he dismisses the distinction founded on the threefold mode of life, and so decreases the whole number by two-thirds, reducing the sects to ninety-six. Then, putting aside the Cynic peculiarities, the number decreases by a half, to forty-eight. Taking away next the distinction occasioned by the hesitancy of the New Academy, the number is again halved, and reduced to twenty-four. Treating in a similar way the diversity introduced by the consideration of the social life, there are left but twelve, which this difference had doubled to twenty-four. Regarding these twelve, no reason can be assigned why they should not be called sects. For in them the sole inquiry is regarding the supreme good and the ultimate evil,--that is to say, regarding the supreme good, for this being found, the opposite evil is thereby found. Now, to make these twelve sects, he multiplies by three these four things--pleasure, repose, pleasure and repose combined, and the primary objects of nature which Varro calls primigenia. For as these four things are sometimes subordinated to virtue, so that they seem to be desired not for their own sake, but for virtue's sake; sometimes preferred to it, so that virtue seems to be necessary not on its own account, but in order to attain these things; sometimes joined with it, so that both they and virtue are desired for their own sakes,--we must multiply the four by three, and thus we get twelve sects. But from those four things Varro eliminates three--pleasure, repose, pleasure and repose combined--not because he thinks these are not worthy of the place assigned them, but because they are included in the primary objects of nature. And what need is there, at any rate, to make a threefold division out of these two ends, pleasure and repose, taking them first severally and then conjunctly, since both they, and many other things besides, are comprehended in the primary objects of nature? Which of the three remaining sects must be chosen? This is the question that Varro dwells upon. For whether one of these three or some other be chosen, reason forbids that more than one be true. This we shall afterwards see; but meanwhile let us explain as briefly and distinctly as we can how Varro makes his selection from these three, that is, from the sects which severally hold that the primary objects of nature are to be desired for virtue's sake, that virtue is to be desired for their sake, and that virtue and these objects are to be desired each for their own sake.